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EXPECTATIONS AND REALITIES IN THE KURDISH QUEST FOR INDEPENDENCE IN IRAQ: 25 SEPTEMBER INDEPENDENCE REFERENDUM

Year 2018, Volume: 10 Issue: 2, 114 - 138, 01.12.2018

Abstract

Following the invasion of Iraq, governance authority andeconomic opportunities allowed for the Kurds to increase theircapacity in terms of politics, military, economics, and culture.Agreements made with multinational energy companies, thediplomatic relationships formed with other states, and thefight against DAESH strengthened the Kurds’ institutionalstructure among other states and increased their self-confidence.In contrast to regional and international powers, the Kurdswere able to perceive the security gap in the Middle East, whichemerged after the changing environment caused after the ArabSpring. The central administration of Iraq perceives the Kurdishquest for a status, which has independence as its ultimate goal,as a threat to its national integrity. Therefore, the Baghdad administration increasingly implemented security-oriented andauthoritarian policies with the aim of more centralization. Anindependence referendum was accepted as the only missingcritical factor that would lead the Kurdish quest to its ultimategoal, and therefore, this referendum was held with high hopes.However, the consequences and the aftermath of the referendumwere mis-calculated. This article argues that the Kurds utilizedtheir energy sources and their fight against DAESH as politicalinstruments in their quest for independence. Within this framework, this article underlines how the unsuccessful outcome ofthe 25 September, 2017, independence referendum resulted ina new period of debate concerning the position of Kurds

References

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  • ‘Protokolekî Leşkerî di Navbera Hewlêrê û Washingtonê de tê Îmze Kirin’, Basnews, July, 12, 2016.
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  • Bruinessen, Martin, Ağa, Şeyh, Devlet, (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2015).
  • Cooley, John, Alliance Against Babylon: The US, Israel and Iraq, (London: Pluto Press, 2005).
  • Cooley, John, Payback: America’s Long War in the Middle East, (London: Brassey’s Inc, 1991).
  • Dilek, M. Ş., “Irak Kürtlerinin Siyasi ve Ekonomik Beklentileri: Güç ve Siyasal Yapı”, Unpublished PhD thesis, (Marmara Üniversitesi, 2017).
  • Duman, Bilgay, ‘Irak’ta Ordu-Peşmerge Kapışması’, ORSAM, November, 22, 2012.
  • Erkmen, A. S., “Amerikan Hegemonyasının Yeniden İnşasında Bölgesel Faktörlerin Rolü: ABD’nin Kuzey Irak Politikası Örneği”, Unpublished PhD Thesis, (Ankara Üniversitesi, 2008).
  • Erkmen, Serhat, ‘IKBY’nin Referandum Kararı ve Irak’ın Geleceği’, AA, June, 23, 2017.
  • Erkmen, Serhat, “Irak’ta İşgal Sonrası Siyasal Yaşam ve 2010 Parlamento Seçimleri”, Ortadoğu Etütleri, Vol.2, No.3, July, 2010, pp. 107-145.
  • Erkmen, Serhat, “Türkiye-Kuzey Irak-ExxonMobil: Ne Getirir Ne Götürür?”, ORSAM, May, 16, 2013.
  • Galbraith, Peter, Irak’ın Sonu: Ulus Devletlerin Çöküşü mü?, (İstanbul: Doğan Ki- tapçılık, 2006).
  • Gunter, Michael, “A De Facto Kurdish State in Northern Iraq“, Third World Quarterly, Vol.14, No.2, January, 1993, pp. 295-319.
  • Gunter, Michael, “The KDP-PUK Conflict in Northern Iraq”, The Middle East Journal, Vol.50, No.2, Spring, 1996, pp. 224-241.
  • Hawrami, Ashti, “Abdullah Abdulrahman Abdullah)-Minister of Natural Re- sources”, KRG, http://cabinet.gov.krd/p/page.aspx?l=12&s=030000&r=315&p=573&h=1, (Accessed on 23/4/2017).
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IRAK KÜRTLERİNİN STATÜ ARAYIŞINDA BEKLENTİLER VE GERÇEKLER: 25 EYLÜL BAĞIMSIZLIK REFERANDUMU

Year 2018, Volume: 10 Issue: 2, 114 - 138, 01.12.2018

Abstract

Irak işgali sonrası yönetimsel meşruiyet ve ekonomik imkanlar Kürtlerin siyasi, askeri,iktisadi ve kültürel açıdan etki ve güç kapasitelerini artırmıştı. Enerji kaynakları üzerinden çokuluslu şirketlerle yapılan anlaşmalar, yabancı devletlerle kurulan diplomatik ilişkiler ve DAEŞ’ekarşı mücadele de hem uluslararası kamuoyu hem de devletler düzeyinde tanınan meşruiyetkurumsal yapılarını güçlendirmenin yanı sıra kendilerine olan aşırı bir güven yanılsamalarınayol açtı. Özellikle Arap Baharı ile birlikte değişen bölgesel şartlar Kürtleri bölgesel ve küreselaktörlerin tutumlarının aksine Ortadoğu’da süregelen kaos ve istikrarsızlık boşluğunu fırsatolarak görmelerini sağlamıştı. Bu süreçte Kürtlerin statü arayışlarındaki nihai hedeflerininbağımsızlık eksenli olması, Irak rejimini söz konusu durumu ulusal bütünlüğüne karşı birtehdit olarak kabul etmesinin yanında daha fazla merkezileşmek amacıyla daha güvenlikçi veotoriter politikalara sevk etti. Kürtler için statü arayışında kritik bir eşik olarak kabul edilenbağımsızlık referandumu büyük beklentilerle gerçekleştirilmiş ancak referandum sonrasıgelişmeler öngörülememiştir. Bu makale Kürtlerin enerji kaynaklarını ve IŞİD’e karşı verdiklerimücadeleyi bağımsızlık arayışında politik bir enstrüman olarak kullandıklarını iddia etmektedir.Bu çerçevede Irak Kürtlerinin gelecek arayışında kritik bir nokta olarak görülen 25 Eylül 2017bağımsızlık referandumu ve bunun başarısızlıkla sonuçlanması Kürtlerin mevcut konumlarınıtekrar tartışmaya açarak yeni bir süreci başlatmıştır

References

  • ‘25ê Îlonê Roja Referanduma Serxwebûnê Ye’, Rudaw, June, 7, 2017.
  • ‘Baghdad Sanctions Kurdish Oil Exports’, United Press International (UPI), May, 11, 2009.
  • ‘Economic ‘Tsunami’ Undermines War Against Islamic State in Iraq-Kurdish Deputy PM’, Reuters, January, 16, 2016.
  • ‘Erbil’e 10 Milyar Dolar ’, Rudaw, August, 28, 2016.
  • ‘IKBY’de Bağımsızlık Arayışı’, SETA Panel, June, 27, 2017.
  • ‘Irak Anayasası’, ORSAM, 21 published in the 401 issue of the Official Gazette of the Republic of Iraq.
  • ‘Iraq and the Kurds: The High-Stakes Hydrocarbons Gambit’, International Crisis Group, April, 19, 2012.
  • ‘Iraq Considering Sanctions Against Exxon- Shahristani’, Reuters, November, 22, 2011.
  • ‘Iraq’s Oil-Rich Kurds Move Steadily Toward Independence’, United Press International (UPI), September, 26, 2013.
  • ‘Protokolekî Leşkerî di Navbera Hewlêrê û Washingtonê de tê Îmze Kirin’, Basnews, July, 12, 2016.
  • ‘Rusya’ya Doğalgazına Karşı Kuzey Irak Doğalgazı ’, Enerji Haber, November, 27, 2015.
  • ‘Tens of Thousands Unemployed in Kurdistan Due to Economic Slump’, Rudaw, 5 October 2016.
  • ‘US to Provide Direct Military and Financial Support To Peshmerga’, Rudaw, July, 12, 2016.
  • “Ministry of Natural Resources”, KRG, http://mnr.krg.org (Accessed on 22/4/2017).
  • “Oil and Gas Law of the Kurdistan Region-Iraq”, KRG-Minister of Natural Resources, August 2007, http://mnr.krg.org/images/pdfs/Kurdistan_Oil_and_Gas_Law_English_2007.p df, (Accessed on 25/4/2017).
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  • Attar, Ali, Kürtler: Bölgesel ve Bölge Dışı Güçler, (İstanbul: Ağaç Kitabevi, 2004)
  • Aydın, Mustafa, Özcan, Nihat and Kaptanoğlu, Neslihan, “Riskler ve Fırsatlar Kavşağında Irak’ın Geleceği ve Türkiye”, TEPAV Ortadoğu Çalışmaları, July, 2007.
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  • Bache, Christina, “Mutual Economic Interdependence or Economic Imbalance: Turkish Private Sector Presence in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq”, Middle East Critique, Vol.27, No.1, 2018, pp. 61-75
  • Balcı, Ali & Akdoğan, İsmail, “Bağdat ve Erbil arasında Irak’ta Denge Siyaseti”, Kemal İnat, Ali Aslan and Burhanettin Duran (Eds.) in Kuruluştan Günümüze AK Parti: Dış Politika, (İstanbul: SETA Press, 2017).
  • Balcı, Ali, “Enerji’sine Kavuşan Komşuluk Türkiye-Kürdistan Bölgesel Yönetimi İl- işkileri”, SETA Analiz, (June 2014).
  • Bayhan, H, “Irak Kürtlerinin Yönetimsel Arayışı ve Federalizm Seçeneği: Tarihsel ve Teorik Bir Analiz”, Unpublished PhD Thesis, (Marmara Universitesi, SBE, 2013).
  • Baykal, Z. “Türkiye’nin Irak Kürdistan Bölgesel Yönetimi olan Enerji İlişkileri (2002-2014)”, Unpublished Masters Thesis, (Marmara University, 2014).
  • Beblawi, Hazem and Luciani, Giacomo, The Rentier State, (London: Croom Helm, 1987).
  • Bengio, Ofra, “Autonomy in Kurdistan in Historical Perspective”, O’Leary, Brendan, McGarry, John and Salih, Khaled, (Eds.), in The Future of Kurdistan in Iraq, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005).
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  • Bengio, Ofra, “The Islamic State: A Catalyst for Kurdish Nation Building”, Tel Aviv Notes, Vol.8, No.18, October, 2014, pp. 1-5.
  • Bilici, Salih and Kurşun, Muhammet, ‘Irak Kürt Bölgesel Yönetimi Topraklarını Genişletti’, AA, March, 18, 2016.
  • Brookst, Rosa Ehrenreich, “Failed States, or the State as Failure?”, The University of Chicago Law Review, Vol.72, No.4, Fall 2005, pp. 1159-1196.
  • Bruinessen, Martin, Ağa, Şeyh, Devlet, (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2015).
  • Cooley, John, Alliance Against Babylon: The US, Israel and Iraq, (London: Pluto Press, 2005).
  • Cooley, John, Payback: America’s Long War in the Middle East, (London: Brassey’s Inc, 1991).
  • Dilek, M. Ş., “Irak Kürtlerinin Siyasi ve Ekonomik Beklentileri: Güç ve Siyasal Yapı”, Unpublished PhD thesis, (Marmara Üniversitesi, 2017).
  • Duman, Bilgay, ‘Irak’ta Ordu-Peşmerge Kapışması’, ORSAM, November, 22, 2012.
  • Erkmen, A. S., “Amerikan Hegemonyasının Yeniden İnşasında Bölgesel Faktörlerin Rolü: ABD’nin Kuzey Irak Politikası Örneği”, Unpublished PhD Thesis, (Ankara Üniversitesi, 2008).
  • Erkmen, Serhat, ‘IKBY’nin Referandum Kararı ve Irak’ın Geleceği’, AA, June, 23, 2017.
  • Erkmen, Serhat, “Irak’ta İşgal Sonrası Siyasal Yaşam ve 2010 Parlamento Seçimleri”, Ortadoğu Etütleri, Vol.2, No.3, July, 2010, pp. 107-145.
  • Erkmen, Serhat, “Türkiye-Kuzey Irak-ExxonMobil: Ne Getirir Ne Götürür?”, ORSAM, May, 16, 2013.
  • Galbraith, Peter, Irak’ın Sonu: Ulus Devletlerin Çöküşü mü?, (İstanbul: Doğan Ki- tapçılık, 2006).
  • Gunter, Michael, “A De Facto Kurdish State in Northern Iraq“, Third World Quarterly, Vol.14, No.2, January, 1993, pp. 295-319.
  • Gunter, Michael, “The KDP-PUK Conflict in Northern Iraq”, The Middle East Journal, Vol.50, No.2, Spring, 1996, pp. 224-241.
  • Hawrami, Ashti, “Abdullah Abdulrahman Abdullah)-Minister of Natural Re- sources”, KRG, http://cabinet.gov.krd/p/page.aspx?l=12&s=030000&r=315&p=573&h=1, (Accessed on 23/4/2017).
  • Hazem Beblawi, “The Rentier State in the Arab World”, Luciani, Giacomo, (Ed.), in The Arab State, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
  • Helman, Gerland and Ratner, Steven, “Saving Failed States”, Foreign Policy, No.89, Winter, 1992-93, pp. 3-20.
  • Hill, Christopher, ‘Iraq After Maliki’, Project Syndicate, August, 25, 2014.
  • Jwaideh, Wadie, Kürt Milliyetçiliğin Tarihi, Kökenleri ve Gelişimi, (İstanbul:İletişim Yayınları, 2012).
  • Karagöl, Erdal, ‘Enerjide Yeni Aktör: Irak Bölgesel Kürt Yönetimi’, SETA Perspektif, November, 28, 2013.
  • Khedery, Ali, ‘Why We Stuck With Maliki-and Lost Iraq’, Washington Post, August, 3, 2014.
  • Kıran, Abdullah, “Bağımsızlık Referandumu”, Serbestiyet, June, 12, 2016.
  • Kirmanj, Sherko, “Kurdistan Region: A Country Profile”, Journal of International Studies, No. 9, April, 2013, pp. 1-14.
  • Korn, David, “The Last Years of Mustafa Barzani”, Middle East Quarterly, Vol.1, No.2, June, 1994.
  • Kramer, Andrew, ‘Iraq Criticizes Exxon Mobil on Kurdistan Oil Pursuits’, The New York Times, November, 12, 2011.
  • Kurubaş, Erol, “Irak Kürt Hareketi: İç Çekişme-Dış Destek-Ayaklanma”, Ümit Özdağ, Sedat Laçiner ve Serhat Erkmen (Eds.), in Irak Krizi, (Ankara: Asam Yayınları, 2003).
  • Leuba, Kate, ‘Exxon’s Role in Iraq-Kurdistan Relations’, July, 2014. http://schools.aucegypt.edu/huss/pols/Khamasin/Pages/article.aspx?eid=15 (Accessed on 11/4/2017).
  • Mahdavy, Hossein, “The Patterns and Problems of Economic Development in Rentier States: The Case Of Iran”, Cook, A. M. (Eds.), in Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East, (London: Oxford University Press, 1970).
  • Manis, Athanasios, ‘Averting an Economic Meltdown in the KRI: Aligning Political Objectives with Economic Necessities’, Middle East Research Institute (MERI), July, 17, 2016.
  • Mansour, Renad, ‘The Kurdish Referendum Backfired Badly. Here’s Why’, Washington Post, November, 25, 2017
  • Marufoğlu, Sinan, Osmanlı Döneminde Kuzey Irak (1831-1914), (İstanbul: Eren Yayıncılık, 1998).
  • Mcdowall, David, Modern Kürt Tarihi, (İstanbul: Doruk Yayıncılık, 2004). Mıhoyan, Şakire, İki Dünya Savaşı Arasında Irak’ta Kürt Sorunu, (İstanbul: Peri Yayınları, 1998).
  • Mills, Robin, “Northern Iraq’s Oil Chessboard: Energy, Politics and Power”, Insight Turkey Vol. 15. No. 1, Winter, 2013, pp. 51.62.
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Details

Primary Language Turkish
Journal Section Research Article
Authors

Şerif Dilek

Publication Date December 1, 2018
Published in Issue Year 2018 Volume: 10 Issue: 2

Cite

Chicago Dilek, Şerif. “IRAK KÜRTLERİNİN STATÜ ARAYIŞINDA BEKLENTİLER VE GERÇEKLER: 25 EYLÜL BAĞIMSIZLIK REFERANDUMU”. Ortadoğu Etütleri 10, no. 2 (December 2018): 114-38.

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